Dinamika Kepentingan Negara Maju-Berkembang dalam Hukum Kelautan: dari UNCLOS I Sampai UNCLOS III
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Published
Jun 11, 2025
Abstract
The creation of a new, codified form of international law of the seas cannot be separated from the dynamics of the countries that participate in its formation. One of the conflicts that emerged in the negotiation process of UNCLOS is the conflicting interests between developing countries and developed countries. Developed states often possess more advanced technology and sufficient capital, thus their interests are different compared to developing states that typically lack such access. This study found that the dynamics between developed and developing states are readily apparent in the formation of UNCLOS 1982, especially in formulating the limits of territorial seas and provisions regarding deep seabed mining. Negotiations of UNCLOS I and II were still dominated by the interests of developed countries and strong maritime countries, thus the resulting legal products tended to affirm the traditional maritime legal regime that was biased towards the interests of developed countries. However during the UNCLOS III negotiating process, the number of developing, newly independent states, especially in the African continent increased rapidly, and they emerged with collective awareness to fight for their collective interests against the dominance of the interests of developed states. This was reflected in the resulting legal product, namely UNCLOS 1982, which forwarded relatively revolutionary concepts such as the principles of Common Heritage of Mankind. However, UNCLOS 1982 was initially not accepted by powerful, developed countries, which, despite their smaller numbers possess disproportionately greater influence. These led to the formation of the 1994 Implementation Agreeement which changed several provisions of Part XI UNCLOS 1982 to be more conducive to the interests of developed countries.
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How to Cite
Cahayarizputra, A. (2025) “Dinamika Kepentingan Negara Maju-Berkembang dalam Hukum Kelautan: dari UNCLOS I Sampai UNCLOS III”, Ranah Research : Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development, 7(5), pp. 3203-3219. doi: 10.38035/rrj.v7i5.1687.
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Enyew, Endalew Lijalem. “Sailing with TWAIL: A Historical Inquiry into Third World Perspectives on the Law of the Sea.” Chinese Journal of International Law 21, no. 3 (December 15, 2022): 439–97. https://doi.org/10.1093/CHINESEJIL/JMAC028.
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Ishaq. Metode Penelitian Hukum Dan Penulisan Skripsi, Tesis, Serta Disertasi. Bandung: Alfabeta, 2020.
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Oyarce, Ximena Hinrichs. “Sponsoring States in the Area: Obligations, Liability and the Role of Developing States.” Marine Policy 95 (September 1, 2018): 317–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MARPOL.2016.06.002.
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Rahmat, Azwar. “Konsep Perbandingan Geopolitik, Sosial Budaya Dan Ekonomi Negara-Negara Maju Dan Negara Berkembang.” Jurnal Pendidikan Edukasia Multikultura 3, no. 1 (2021): 35–51. https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=id&user=qgM_ajAAAAAJ&citation_for_view=qgM_ajAAAAAJ:IjCSPb-OGe4C.
Ranganathan, Surabhi. “Decolonization and International Law: Putting the Ocean on the Map.” Journal of the History of International Law 23, no. 1 (2021): 161. https://doi.org/10.1163/15718050-12340168.
Reeves, Jesse S. “The Codification of the Law of Territorial Waters.” American Journal of International Law 24, no. 3 (July 1930): 486–99. https://doi.org/10.2307/2189681.
Richardson, Elliot. “The United States Posture Toward the Law of the Sea Convention: Awkward but Not Irreparable.” San Diego Law Review 20, no. 3 (June 1, 1983). https://digital.sandiego.edu/sdlr/vol20/iss3/4.
Rometius, Steel. “Forty Years’ Reflection of the Legislative Features of the UNCLOS: A Critical Analysis.” Journal of East Asia and International Law 16, no. 1 (January 1, 2023): 29. https://doi.org/10.14330/JEAIL.2023.16.1.02.
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Shabtai, Rosenne, and Gebhard Julia. “Conferences on the Law of the Sea.” In Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law. Oxford University Press, May 2008. https://doi.org/10.1093/LAW:EPIL/9780199231690/E1150.
Silva, Alexandre Pereira da. “From the First Claims to the Exclusive Economic Zone: Reviewing Latin America’s 200-Nautical Mile Sea Seventy Years On.” Ocean Yearbook Online 33, no. 1 (2019): 131–60. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004395633_006.
Sohn, Louis B. “International Law Implications of the 1994 Agreement.” American Journal of International Law 88, no. 4 (October 1994): 696–705. https://doi.org/10.2307/2204137.
Tangkilisan, Yuda B. “Sovereignty on Seas: The Making of the Declaration of Djuanda 1957.” In Asia-Pacific Research in Social Sciences and Humanities, Arts and Humanities Stream (AHS-APRISH 2019), 18–27. Atlantis Press, 2023. https://doi.org/10.2991/978-2-38476-058-9_3.
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———. “CHAPTER XXI LAW OF THE SEA 2. Convention on the High Seas.” United Nations Treaty Series. Accessed May 11, 2025. https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXI-2&chapter=21&clang=_en.
———. “CHAPTER XXI LAW OF THE SEA 3. Convention on Fishing and Conservation of the Living Resources of the High Seas.” United Nations Treaty Series. Accessed May 11, 2025. https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXI-3&chapter=21&clang=_en.
———. “CHAPTER XXI LAW OF THE SEA 4. Convention on the Continental Shelf .” https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXI-4&chapter=21&clang=_en. Accessed May 11, 2025. https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXI-4&chapter=21&clang=_en.
———. “Comments by Governments on the Draft Articles Concerning the Law of the Sea Adopted by the International Law Commission at Its Eighth Session, A/CONF.13/5.” Accessed May 12, 2025. https://legal.un.org/diplconf_records/1958_los/docs/english/vol_1/a_conf13_5.pdf.
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Yuliantiningsih, Aryuni, Noer Indriati, and Wismaningsih. HUKUM LAUT Pengaturannya Dalam Hukum Internasional Dan Hukum Nasional Indonesia . Banyumas: UNSOED Press, 2022.
Ansong, Alex. “The Concept of Sovereign Equality of States in International Law.” GIMPA Law Review 2, no. 1 (2016): 14–34. https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=3171769.
Armstrong, Chris. “The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Global Justice and the Environment.” Global Constitutionalism 13, no. 1 (March 3, 2024): 16–20. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2045381723000151.
Arnold, Rudolph Preston. “The Common Heritage of Mankind as a Legal Concept on JSTOR.” The International Lawyer 9, no. 1 (1975). https://www.jstor.org/stable/40704919.
Beesley, Alan. “The Negotiating Strategy of UNCLOS III: Developing and Developed Countries as Partners: A Pattern for Future Multilateral International Conferences?” Law and Contemporary Problems 46, no. 2 (Spring 1983): 183. https://doi.org/10.2307/1191524.
Behuniak, Thomas. “THE SEIZURE .LVD RECOVERY OF THE S.S. MAYAGUEZ: A LEGAL ANALYSIS OF UNITED STATES CLAIMS.” Military Law Review 82 (1982).
Bernaz, Nadia, and Irene Pietropaoli. “Developing a Business and Human Rights Treaty: Lessons from the Deep Seabed Mining Regime Under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.” Business and Human Rights Journal 5, no. 2 (2020): 200–220. https://doi.org/10.1017/BHJ.2020.7.
Draper, Jack A. “The Indonesian Archipelagic State Doctrine and Law of the Sea: Territorial Grab or Justifiable Necessity.” The International Lawyer 11, no. 1 (January 1, 1977): 143. https://scholar.smu.edu/til/vol11/iss1/15.
Enyew, Endalew Lijalem. “Sailing with TWAIL: A Historical Inquiry into Third World Perspectives on the Law of the Sea.” Chinese Journal of International Law 21, no. 3 (December 15, 2022): 439–97. https://doi.org/10.1093/CHINESEJIL/JMAC028.
Friedheim, Robert. “UNCLOS and the New International Economic Order.” Journal of Law and the Environment 4 (1987). https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/jlen4&id=27&div=&collection=.
Friedman, Alan, and Cynthia Williams. “The Group of 77 at the United Nations: An Emergent Force in the Law of the Sea.” San Diego Law Review 16, no. 3 (April 1, 1979). https://digital.sandiego.edu/sdlr/vol16/iss3/5.
Harrison, James. Making the Law of the Sea. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011.
Ishaq. Metode Penelitian Hukum Dan Penulisan Skripsi, Tesis, Serta Disertasi. Bandung: Alfabeta, 2020.
Juda, Lawrence. “Unclos and the New International Economic Order.” Ocean Development and International Law 7, no. 3–4 (January 1, 1979): 221–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/00908327909545638;WEBSITE:WEBSITE:TFOPB;PAGEGROUP:STRING:PUBLICATION.
Kraus, John. “Unmoored from the UN: The Struggle to Ratify UNCLOS in the United States - The SAIS Review of International Affairs.” SAIS Review of International Affairs, 2023. https://saisreview.sais.jhu.edu/unmoored-from-the-un-the-struggle-to-ratify-unclos-in-the-united-states/.
Malanczuk, Peter, and Michael Akehurst. Akehurst’s Modern Introduction to International Law. 7th ed. New York: Routledge, 1997.
Manley, Robert H. “Developing Nation Imperatives for a New Law of the Sea: Unclosi and Iii as Stages in the International Policy Process.” Ocean Development and International Law 7, no. 1–2 (January 1, 1979): 9–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/00908327909545631;CTYPE:STRING:JOURNAL.
Martell, Elizabeth A., and Christopher C. Joyner. “Looking Back to See Ahead: Unclos Iii and Lessons for Global Commons Law.” Ocean Development and International Law 27, no. 1–2 (January 1, 1996): 73–95. https://doi.org/10.1080/00908329609546076;SUBPAGE:STRING:ABSTRACT;REQUESTEDJOURNAL:JOURNAL:UODL20;WGROUP:STRING:PUBLICATION.
Oyarce, Ximena Hinrichs. “Sponsoring States in the Area: Obligations, Liability and the Role of Developing States.” Marine Policy 95 (September 1, 2018): 317–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MARPOL.2016.06.002.
Probyn, Elspeth. “UNCLOS AS A GEOPOLITICAL CHOKEPOINT: Locked Down, Locked In, Locked Out.” Laws of the Sea: Interdisciplinary Currents, January 1, 2022, 185–202. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003205173-9/UNCLOS-GEOPOLITICAL-CHOKEPOINT-ELSPETH-PROBYN.
Putri, Ria Wierma, Yuga Narazua Khanza, Orima Melati Davey, and Febryani Sabatira. “DELAYS IN THE INTERNATIONAL SEABED AUTHORITY MINING CODE: INSIGHT FROM TWAIL AND BBNJ FRAMEWORKS.” Indonesia Law Review 14, no. 4 (December 31, 2024): 4. https://doi.org/10.15742/ilrev.v14n4.4.
Rahmat, Azwar. “Konsep Perbandingan Geopolitik, Sosial Budaya Dan Ekonomi Negara-Negara Maju Dan Negara Berkembang.” Jurnal Pendidikan Edukasia Multikultura 3, no. 1 (2021): 35–51. https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=id&user=qgM_ajAAAAAJ&citation_for_view=qgM_ajAAAAAJ:IjCSPb-OGe4C.
Ranganathan, Surabhi. “Decolonization and International Law: Putting the Ocean on the Map.” Journal of the History of International Law 23, no. 1 (2021): 161. https://doi.org/10.1163/15718050-12340168.
Reeves, Jesse S. “The Codification of the Law of Territorial Waters.” American Journal of International Law 24, no. 3 (July 1930): 486–99. https://doi.org/10.2307/2189681.
Richardson, Elliot. “The United States Posture Toward the Law of the Sea Convention: Awkward but Not Irreparable.” San Diego Law Review 20, no. 3 (June 1, 1983). https://digital.sandiego.edu/sdlr/vol20/iss3/4.
Rometius, Steel. “Forty Years’ Reflection of the Legislative Features of the UNCLOS: A Critical Analysis.” Journal of East Asia and International Law 16, no. 1 (January 1, 2023): 29. https://doi.org/10.14330/JEAIL.2023.16.1.02.
Rosen, Mark. “Challenges to Public Order and the Seas .” Alexandria, 2014.
Schandorf, Stephanie Oserwa. “Power Relations and Maritime Justice: An Exploration of UNCLOS Negotiations.” Ocean and Society 1, no. 0 (November 14, 2024): 8791. https://doi.org/10.17645/OAS.8791.
Shabtai, Rosenne, and Gebhard Julia. “Conferences on the Law of the Sea.” In Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law. Oxford University Press, May 2008. https://doi.org/10.1093/LAW:EPIL/9780199231690/E1150.
Silva, Alexandre Pereira da. “From the First Claims to the Exclusive Economic Zone: Reviewing Latin America’s 200-Nautical Mile Sea Seventy Years On.” Ocean Yearbook Online 33, no. 1 (2019): 131–60. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004395633_006.
Sohn, Louis B. “International Law Implications of the 1994 Agreement.” American Journal of International Law 88, no. 4 (October 1994): 696–705. https://doi.org/10.2307/2204137.
Tangkilisan, Yuda B. “Sovereignty on Seas: The Making of the Declaration of Djuanda 1957.” In Asia-Pacific Research in Social Sciences and Humanities, Arts and Humanities Stream (AHS-APRISH 2019), 18–27. Atlantis Press, 2023. https://doi.org/10.2991/978-2-38476-058-9_3.
Treves, Tullio. “Introductory Note 1958 Geneva Conventions on the Law of the Sea,” 2008. https://legal.un.org/avl/ha/gclos/gclos.html.
Triatmodjo, Marsudi, Agustina Merdekawati, Irkham Afnan, and Trisandi Hasibuan. “THE RECENT CHALLENGED DEVELOPMENT TO IMPLEMENT UNCLOS 1982’S COMMON HERITAGE OF MANKIND.” Mimbar Hukum 34, no. 1 (June 30, 2022): 1–31. https://doi.org/10.22146/MH.V34I1.4000.
United Nations. “CHAPTER XXI LAW OF THE SEA 1. Convention on the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone.” United Nations Treaty Series. Accessed May 11, 2025. https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXI-1&chapter=21&clang=_en.
———. “CHAPTER XXI LAW OF THE SEA 2. Convention on the High Seas.” United Nations Treaty Series. Accessed May 11, 2025. https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXI-2&chapter=21&clang=_en.
———. “CHAPTER XXI LAW OF THE SEA 3. Convention on Fishing and Conservation of the Living Resources of the High Seas.” United Nations Treaty Series. Accessed May 11, 2025. https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXI-3&chapter=21&clang=_en.
———. “CHAPTER XXI LAW OF THE SEA 4. Convention on the Continental Shelf .” https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXI-4&chapter=21&clang=_en. Accessed May 11, 2025. https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXI-4&chapter=21&clang=_en.
———. “Comments by Governments on the Draft Articles Concerning the Law of the Sea Adopted by the International Law Commission at Its Eighth Session, A/CONF.13/5.” Accessed May 12, 2025. https://legal.un.org/diplconf_records/1958_los/docs/english/vol_1/a_conf13_5.pdf.
World Bank Group. “World Development Indicators | Data Catalog,” 2025. https://datacatalog.worldbank.org/search/dataset/0037712.
Yuliantiningsih, Aryuni, Noer Indriati, and Wismaningsih. HUKUM LAUT Pengaturannya Dalam Hukum Internasional Dan Hukum Nasional Indonesia . Banyumas: UNSOED Press, 2022.